"Geography is the science of our world, and using and sharing geographic knowledge is the key to our future."

The largest lake of each continent

1.Lake superior,northamerica
2.caspiansea,asia\europe
3.Lake victoria,africa
4.lake eyre,austrila
5.lake michigan,northamerica
6.lake maracaibo,southamerica

the longest river of each continent

1.nile,africa
2.amazon,southamerica
3.changjiang,asia
4.mississippi,northamerica
5.volga,europe
6murray,austrila

The largest island of each continent

1.Greenland ,northamerica
2.greatbritian,Europe
3.papau guinea,austrila
4.boreno,asia
5.Tierra del fuego,southamerica
6.madagascar,africa

Highest mountains of each continent

1.mount everest,asia ,8848m
2.mc kinley,northamerica6194m
3.elbrus,Europe,5642m
4.kosciusko,austrila,2228m
5.kilimanjraro.africa,5895m
6.aconcagua,southamerica,6959m

Air mass circulation

The world’s winds are part of a global system of circulation that moves warm air from the equator to the poles, and cold air opposite way, maintaining the balance of temperatures around the world.

Fields of Study

The principal objectives of the committee are the investigation of the organization of area, exploration of the earth environment and of its interactions with human life, and inquiry into the geographical dimensions of cultures and societies. The research interests of the committee's faculty include:

Urban organization and change: Urban origins; the evolution of urban networks and systems of cities, ancient and modern, western and non-western; the changing spatial structure, social organization, and morphology of urban areas; problems of urban allocation and planning; regionalism in American urban life; emergence of new metropolitan and non-metropolitan settlement patterns in advanced societies.

Regional studies: Historical and thematic approaches to regional structure, particularly of North America and the Middle East; theory of the region; the origin and development of regional character; locality and place-making; nature and culture in regional settings; comparative study of regions.

Cultural foundations of nation-building: The ethno-religious bases of the nation-state; evolving regionalism and culture; the geographical significance of territoriality; national and regional boundary conflicts; minorities and cultural autonomy; linguistic policies of the state; multicultural development strategies; international and transnational management of ethnic conflict; cultural roots of self-determination.

Landscape studies: Landscape as an embodiment and shaper of social values and attitudes towards environment; theories of landscape structure and change; the historical development and regional construction of landscapes; thematic landscapes; the role of institutions in environmental design and management; aesthetic landscape values; landscape and the sense of place; comparative landscape analysis.

Geography

Geography
Introduction
Geography is derived from the Greek word geographica. It is a combination of two words geo and graphy. Geo means the earth and graphy means description. geography, therefore, means the description of earth. The study of geography, however, is not confined to the study of earth alone. it also includes all living things on it. Geography, infact, is the study of the world and its people.


Importance
Geography is important us in several ways. It has practical, economic, administrative and human application.
We can know about the relief features such as land structure,climatic condition, natural vegetation etc. of a place. We can use this knowledge to prevent problems of floods,landslide and erossins. It has thus practical important.

Branches of geography
1. Huma geography
2. Physical geography
3. Practica geography

The atmosphere

The atmosphere
The surface of the earth is surrounded by layers of gases. The gases above the earth’s crust which cover the earth are called atmosphere. The gases and the composition air that we near the surface of the earth are not uniform. Different gases found in the atmosphere and the temperature gradually change at different heights. So, depending upon the temperature and composition ,atmosphere of the earth is divided into the following.
1.troposphere
This is the layer of atmosphere in which we live. It extends up to 16km high fro the sea level.the temperature with in this layer decreases with the increase of height. Different climatic processes as rain, hailstone, snow, dew,frost,lightening,cloud,etc. occour in this layer.the major components found in this layer are nitrogen, oxygen,co2,inert gases,water vapour and dust particles

2. stratosphere
The layer above the troposphere up to 15km is called stratosphere. The temperature in this layer increases with the increase os height. The upper layer contain a layer of ozone. The ozone layer protect us from the harmful rays of the sun. as stratosphere contain ozone it is also called ozonosphere . ozone is found in the upper boundary of stratosphere,

3.mesosphere
The layer of atmosphere from 50km to 80km is called mesosphere. In this layer temperature decreases with the increase of height. air keeps on glowing in this region .it is very cold layer with a temperature -100 degree Celsius. The lower part is little warmer as it receives heat from the stratosphere just below it.
4.thermosphere
The layer of the atmosphere ranges from 80km to 720km is called thermosphere. The temperature of this layer increases with the increase of height. It is the hottest layer where the temperature reaches 200 degreecelsius . the gaseous materials in this region are in an ionic form. The region is that the gaseous absorbs the UV radiation of sun and get ionized. the mesosphere and thermosphere combinely called ionosphere because the gases present here are in ionic form.

5. exosphere
The layer of atmosphere above the thermosphere is called exosphere. The air density in this layer is the lowest. The temperature of this layer is very high.

The earth rock and soil

Introduction
We know that earth is one of eight planet. Although it appears round in the space, it is not completely round . the equatorial diameter is the boarder than the polar diameter. The surface of the earth is no uniform and smooth. There are many structures like plain, mountains, plateaus, hills,valleys etc. the surface of the earth where we live is cool and favourable for life. The inner surface of the earth is not similar. The temperature and the density of the material goes on increasing in the inner part of the earth. Scientist has divided the internal part of the earth. They are crust, mantle outer core and inner core.
The outermost layer of the earth is crust. The crust is made up of rocks. The rocks are hard materials found on the surface of the earth. Rocks are also found in the inner depth of crust. Soil is formed by weathering of rocks. Most part of the surface contain soil which is covering the hard rockbeneath it. The bottom layer is bed rock. This is why the soil contains many rocks mixed in it.
Rocks
Rocks make the earth’s surface. Rocks are found on the surface as well as in the inner part of the earth.in the regions where plant is growing, the rock is covered by soil. The hard materials which make the earth’s crust are called rocks. The branch of science which deals with rocks is called geology. The scientist who are engaged in the study of rocks is called geologist.

Composition of rock
There are rocks of different shape, sizes ,color texture, hardness and chemical nature.the chemical nature or composition means different proportions of elements on the rocks. Different types of rocks have different proportions of different elements in them. The rocks on disintegration provide different elements to the soil which is utilized by plants and animals. The increase indifferent elements in the soil like calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium etc . make soil fertile. In this way rocks support life.

Types of rocks
On the basis of origin and formation of, rocks are catagorised I nto three types.
1. Igneous rock
We have already study that the inner part of the earth has substances in a molten state. the molten mass, mixture of liquid and gas at high temperature is called magma. The magma sometimes due to some reasons comes out to the surface of the earth. The magma on the surface of the earth is called lava. The magma comes out through narrow channels or a passage searching for the weak parts on the earth’s crust. The points or regions on the surface through which lava comes out is called crater. The lava on reaching the earth surface get coole, solified and change into rocj. This type of rocks is called igneous rock.they are found in volcanic zones.some of them are granite, pumice, obsidian, basalt.


2. Sedimentary rocks
The weathering of rocks is continuous process on the earth’s surface.the continuous breaking changes rocks into small particles. Sedimentary rocks are formed by this tiny particles.wind, river ,air deposit materials. The deposited layer is called sediments. Many layer of sediments are formed continuously by this process. After a long period the layer underneath into hard rocks. This type of rock is called sedimentary rocks. Some of them are conglomerate, sandstone, shale, limestone etc.




3.metamorphic rock
The types of ricks which are formed by the change in sedimentary or igneous are called metamorphic rocks. They are found in the inner part. Some of them are quartzite, graphite, marble, schist, diamond slate etc.

Map and its functions

Map has physical and political division. In the physical map, we can see mountains, forests, rivers etc. similarly in the political map we can see political regions like districts, zones, development regions etc.


1. Practicing
First of all suppose you take the map of Nepal. Look it carefully and try to copy on a another sheet of paper. you should try again and again until you have convinced that you have drawn good map of Nepal. In the beginning you may face difficult but at the end when you get success, your happiness know no bounds. As you know “practice makes a man perfect” this is the best method.


2. Copying
This method is very easy for you. You take a white paper, a carbon paper and the original map of Nepal. Put the white paper first and put a carbon paper down it. Then on the top put origina map of Nepal. Now move the tip of the pencil along the outline of the map. In this way you will able to draw a good map of Nepal.


3. Tracing
It is also one method of drawing the map. For this method, we take a thin paper specially made for tracing. Put it on the original map.press the tracing paper slowly; the lines of the original map will look unique..mope the pencil tip along the unique line.

Earthquake

Any sudden movement of the earth’s portions due to a natural case which produces a shaking or trembling is known as an earthquake. During time of earthquake,the earth’s crust shakes vertically called vertical quake and the horizontal shake is called horizontal quake.

Elements that bring about changes on the earth surface

The outer surface of the earth is not even or plain. It has high and low lands, valleys, very tall mountains, plateaus and plain areas. This irregular outer surface of the earth is called topography. The shape of surface with any size is called relief feature. The construction of this features or shape is not always similar. It keeps on changing. Such changes can be experienced. 30 million crores years ago, there was a big sea called the Tethys where there are our mountains and hills now days.
The earth surface changes due to several geological processes and elements that are active on earth’s surface . River, wind, glaciers, rainfall, plants and animals etc. are the external elements. As a result of this elements,new structure may form as eroded soil is collected else where. The rivers , wind and glacier erode and collect soil and bring changes on earth’s surface.The processes and elements inside the earth also create big hills. Internal elements like volcanoes and earth quakes bring immediate change on earth’s surface. In this way internal and external elements work to bring changes on earth’s surface.
The work done by such forces \ elements consists of denundation of high lands lands and deposition of materials on he low lands. Denundation is the process by which external forces wear away land. Actually, it is the summation of weather , transport and erosion. Both the Denundation and deposition process combined together and cause to bring the surface of lithosphere to a normal level.This process is called gradation.

Continental geography

1.Asia
The Asia the biggest continent occupies 0.3 percent of land. It is consumed up by more than 54 countries. At the middle side of Asia There are plateaus such as Plateau of Tibet, Mongolian plateau, plateau of kobdo and vitim plateau. At the southern Asia there are decan plateau, plateau of Iran, indo peninsula, yuan plateau etc.
In the southern part of this continent there are located the highest peak of the world, Mt.Everest, Mt k2, mt. Annapurna,Mt kanchanganja, etc. this continent is also fulfilled by many rivers and lakes.
His continent is also sorounded by ocea in all directions.Pacific ocean and Indian ocean sorrounds it from all directionsThis continent is touched by Europe in the northen parts and Africa by th southern.



2.Europe
Europe is the second largest continent.In the middle side of the Europe there are central Russian uplands,grat low land. In the southern there are plain of Russia, Spanish plateau. In the western north there is urla mountains.
This continent is touched by Asia in west and this continent is also touched by ocean of antratica .

3.Africa
This is the third largest continent. Most of the place of this covered by desert. It is also the hotter region.At the northen part there is sahara desert. At northen side there is Namib deserrt, in same north there is Kalahari desert.This region also occupies plateaus and basins like congo basin,bie plateau, Katanga plateau, central tangganyika plateau etc.
This continent is surrounded by Indian ocean and atlantic ocean.The small island of this continent known as madagaskar island is separated from it’s main parts.



4.South America
The south America is the fourth largest continent. This continent is surrounded by Atlantic ocean and pacific ocean.
There are andes mountain ,Atacama desert, Mt lanin,Mt tronador etc in the easter part. Pampas is in the middle partand grad chaco too. In the northen middle part there is plateau of mato grosso. In the southern part there is brazzallian highlands and plateau of borborema.It is touched by north America in the northen part.


5.North America
Another small continent is north America. This continent is surrounded by Atlanti ocean and pacific ocean. This continent is touched by south America in the southern part.
Like other continent it has also all the geographical features. In the northen part there is Hudson bay, laurentian plateau. In the eastern side there is rocky mountains system. In the southern there is Mexican plateau. In the middle there is central plains and great plains.


6. Australlia
This continent is compsed up by 18 countries. This continent is the small continent among other.This continent is touched by pacific ocean and Indian ocean.There are mountains like, mt bruce, MT augustus Mt bluff etc.This continent is not touched by any continent.

Types climatic zones

1. Tropical zone
There lies tropical region up 30 degree latitude n both the hemisphere. Since the rays are straight here it is always hot but rainfall depends according to the place. On the basis of temperature this zone can be divided into the following climatic regions.




a. Mediterranean region
As the sun rays are vertical in the region between 5 degree to north and south of the equator, it is very hot all over the year. As a result of heat, the surface area becomes hot. In this region there is no seasonal change. The days and night are of equal time. 90 percent of the living species are found here.



b. The region of hot desert
From 20 to 30 degree latitude both the hemisphere, in the middle and the southern parts of continent it is usually very hot and dry. The big desert like Sahara, Atacama and Kalahari lies in this region. It is very hot at day time and cold in night. On the plants there are cactus, and other busy and thorny plants. The animals like camel, fox etc. can survive there.

C.Tropical woodland

The extended grassland found in between 5 degree south to 20 degree south latitude is called savan . It is the zoo of the world because here are found all the types of animals. It is warm and rain also fall. the rain fall takes in winter.The animals like zebras, giraffe, and all others wild animals are found here.



d. Tropical monsoon

The climate in between 5 degree to 30 degree latitude in both hemispheres is known as tropical monsoon. It is hot and rainfall in summer and winter is cold. The wild animals like tiger fox jackal elephant are found. There are ever green plants in this area.


Temperate zone
There lies temperate zone in between 30 to 50 or 60 degree latitude in both the hemisphere. It is neither hot nor cold. There are 3 types of regions of it.


a. Mediterranean
It is hot, drying summer and warm and wetting winter. In summer, rainfall does not take place. We notice such climate around Mediterranean sea In European countries, center chili, in south America, C.A etc. The trees here have long roots, thick barks and small and smooth leaves.






b. Temperate grassland
In the inner part of the continents the climate reaches up to 25 degree Celsius in summer and in winter as it is very cold. The soil is very fertile because the humus increases the soil fertility.



c. Temperate woodland
The climate around the Saint Lawrence River in Western Europe and North America is very useful for health. Because of the effect of the ocean, there is small yearly temperature difference .Natural vegetations are of deciduous nature. The developed areas of Britain, Norway, Sweden, France, Germany, USA and Canada are in this zone.





Polar Zone
In this zone the sun rays doesn’t fall the whole winter and the whole winter is dark. Water in the sea freezes due the coldness. No one lives permanently in the Antarctica. Northen polar zone is frozen with ice.As the heat increases in the Summer , to some extent,the land doesnot get frozen and some varieties of plants and fl0owers grow there.Greenland Canada, Scandinavia lie here. There is similar climate in the various part of Russia.There are people who live permanently here.They have their own lifestyle.Houses are made up of stones and in winter they are made up of the ice blocks named igloo.To the south to the Tundra there is a coniferous evergreen forest. It is very cold here. This forest is extended from east to west in Canada and Siberia in Asia. It is extremely cold here and therefore, there is less cultivation.

small informations about longitude

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As with latitude, longitude is measured as an angular distance. With Latitude, the angular distance is measured from the equator. This is a natural place to begin. However, with longitude there is no natural beginning point. One of these lines must be designated as a prime meridian, or as the 0 ° mark, but which one? For many years, each country had its own prime meridian. France used a meridian passing through Paris, while England used a meridian passing through Greenwich, England. Either one worked just as well, as long as you were only communicating with people from the same country. But what happens as technologies improved, and travelers begin interacting with people from many different lands? If each country is using a different prime meridian to mark 0 ° longitude, than it would be impossible to give someone from another country a location, and have them be able to accurately find it.

Over time, more and more travelers began to recognize the meridian passing through Greenwich, England as the Prime Meridian. In 1884 a group of scientists, navigators, and businessmen made Greenwich, England the official worldwide Prime Meridian.

The further away from the Prime Meridian that one travels the higher their longitude becomes, until they reach 180 ° longitude. If an individual is in the Eastern Hemisphere, their longitude is measured in degrees East. If they are in the Western Hemisphere their longitude is measured in degrees West

A bit of information

Hey, hi it’s me Pukar  Aryal from Bagar-1 ,Pokhara ,Nepal. I want to give you some Information about the geography of  the World. Beside these, I also give you an informations about climate which change due to the degree made by latitude. You can find all the  geographical matters on my web page.For that, please open